tribal tourism is a relatively new type of tourism
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Tribal tourism is a relatively new type of tourism. It involves travellers going to remote destinations, staying with local people and learning about their culture and way of life. They stay in local accommodation, share facilities with local people, and join in with meals and celebrations. At the moment, less than one percent of holidays are tribal tourism holidays, but this is set to change. Tribal tourism is often compared with foreign exchange visits. However, a foreign exchange involves staying with people who often share the same values. Tribal tourism takes visitors to places where the lifestyle is very different from that in their home location. Those who have been on a tribal holiday explain that experiencing this lifestyle is the main attraction. They say that it offers them the chance to live in a way they never have before. Not everyone is convinced that tribal tourism is a good thing, and opinions are divided. The argument is about whether or not it helps the local population, or whether it exploits them. The main problem is that, because tribal tourism is relatively new, the long-term influences on local populations have not been studied in much detail. Where studies have been carried out, the effects have been found to be negative. So, it is possible to experience an exotic culture without harming it in someway? “With a bit of thought, we can maximise the positive influences and minimise the negative,” says travel company director Hilary Waterhouse. “The most important thing for a tribal tourist is to show respect for, learn about, and be aware of, local customs and traditions. Always remember you’re a guest.”Adapted from “Complete IELTS” by Rawdon Wyall According to Hilary Waterhouse, the most important thing for a tribal tourist is to ________. A. be accompanied by other travellers B. forget about negative experiences C. respect local customs and traditions D. learn about other guests Đáp án C Theo như Hilary Waterhouse, điều quan trọng nhất cho một chuyến du lịch bộ lạc là _______ . A. Được theo sau bởi những người đi du lịch khác B. Quên đi những trải nghiệm tiêu cực C. Tôn trọng tập quán và truyền thống địa phương D. Học tập về những vị khách khác Căn cứ vào thông tin trong đoạn cuối - “So, is it possible to experience an exotic culture without harming it in someway? “With a bit of thought, we can maximise the positive influences and minimise the negative,” says travel company director Hilary Waterhouse. “The most important thing for a tribal tourist is to show respect for, learn about, and be aware of, local customs and traditions. Always remember you’re a guest.” Vậy nên, liệu có thể trải nghiệm một nền văn hóa độc đáo mà không làm hại đến nó không? Hilary Waterhouse giám đốc một công ty du lịch nói “Với một chút suy nghĩ, chúng ta có thể tối ưu hóa tác động tích cực và làm giảm đến mức thấp nhất những tác động tiêu cực.”. “Điều quan trọng nhất trong một chuyến du lịch bộ lạc là thể hiện sự tôn trọng, tìm hiểu và nhận thức được, tập quán và truyền thống địa phương.” => Đáp án là C
1. IntroductionTourism has been identified as a vital mechanism of sustainable development in rural indigenous areas [1,2,3,4]. Since indigenous areas have profound ethnic culture and ecological significance and sensitivity, successful tourism development must consider the perceptions of the local community in order to build a mutual relationship grounded on respect, trust, and feasibility to create local acceptance and support [2,5,6,7,8]. Increased attention is being focused on the extension from agricultural to tourism development in rural indigenous areas in order to create impacts such as economic activation, income and employment production, public infrastructure creation, culture preservation, and nature conservation [4,7,9,10]. Although tourism development has desired impacts, it can also produce undesired consequences. Depending on the case, those undesired impacts may include local culture dilution, pollution, conflicts with tourists, and damage to the natural environment [11,12,13,14,15]. Local communities are in direct contact with the changes in their community in which they both tolerate and benefit from the consequences of tourism development. The concerns that have arisen over indigenous residents’ perceptions and opinion have become a critical consideration in sustainable tourism planning and a focus of tourism impact research [2,5]. There has been a shift in attention from a focus on tourism impacts to how the impacts are perceived and chosen by the hosting community in the context of tourism development strategies [3,5,11,12,16]. Understand the attitude and perception of the local residents is fundamental for making informed decisions and selecting optimum practices in tourism development. Impacts of Tourism DevelopmentIn terms of tourism impact, as tourists interact with the local environment, economy, and community, tourism activities generate combined influences on the economic, natural, cultural, and societal status in the destination. A number of books and papers have focused on a wide range of multi-faceted characteristics related to tourism impacts and have stated that the consequences can be positive and beneficial as well as negative and undesired [11,14]. The following two sections provide literature reviews of tourism development concerning its impacts on the local economy, environment, and society. Economic and Environmental Impacts of TourismThere has been a wave of interest in the relationship of economic impacts in hosting communities. Much of the research on economic impacts has centered on the effects of income and employment since the local residents generally anticipate and seek to benefit from economic stimulations through job opportunities in tourism service or sales pertaining to food, accommodation, crafts, and activities [16,17,18,19]. Although tourism can negatively impact the economy through aspects such as inflation, public sectors often consider positive economic impacts as the main tourism impacts and therefore prefer to select tourism as the development approach instead of other industrial options, especially for rural area development. Environmental impacts have been widely investigated to contribute insights into tourism. The literature suggests that the environmental impacts of tourism principally depend on local conditions, such as locality, activity type, form of tourist infrastructure, and can be the result of the planning practices [7,8,20]. In terms of carrying capacity, some places are more fragile than others, such as rural vs. urban areas; the type of activity influences the impacts on the site [15], such as hiking by foot vs. riding all-terrain vehicles. In addition, the preparation of infrastructure and construction for tourism service substantially affects impacts [17,20,21]. Newly constructed buildings, roads, parking lots, and facilities, if not carefully planned, can impact local ecological habitats, damage original visual resources, and weaken the site’s resilience to natural disasters in extreme weather, such as soil erosion, landslides, and use overload. Environmental pollution due to increased tourism, such as traffic congestion, littering, and noise, is an important impact that affects the quality of residents’ daily lives [12,22]. From the growing body of literature on tourism impacts, although there are positive impacts on the environment, such as environmental protection and conservation, the relationship between tourism and the environment has been unequal. Tourism is conventionally considered a substantial contributor to environmental problems rather than a vehicle for environmental protection. Societal and Empowering Impacts of TourismTourism also significantly impacts societal aspects [8,16]. Research has empirically documented the links between tourism development and the changes in a group of people, their interactions, attitudes, and behavior patterns, as well as impacts on cultural aspects, which involve knowledge, values, and art [13]. These aspects and their intricate relationships have been described in the literature by both qualitative and quantitative investigations. The findings of those studies reflect the context-sensitive nature of the socio-cultural impacts of tourism [7,23]. Researchers have shown that tourism has both positive and negative socio-culture impacts. The positive impacts include the effects on the renaissance of traditional activities, arts, crafts, the revitalization of cultural social life style, as well as the stimulation of supportive resources, the preservation of traditional architectures and historical remains, and the protection of scenic landscapes [5,16,17,24,25]. The negative impacts include issues of cultural authentication, local community disturbance, and the development of adversarial relationships between locals and tourists [9,16,26]. A number of publications have indicated a renewed interest in the empowerment effects of tourism, identifying the transformation of local residents’ self-identity as one important socio-culture impact of tourism. Studies have noted that the process of identity transformation involves the interactions among tourists, local residents, and the external forces that affect the representation and conversion of local identity [8,16,25,27]. In indigenous communities, studies have found that members dynamically negotiate their identities with visitors. In these interactions, residents redefine their identity and tend to develop recognition of the uniqueness of their cultural traditions and native identity [25,27]. Residents’ participation and attitudes are the foundation for whether tourism development can be sustainably supported in the destination. A fairly large body of literature discusses both the positive and negative impacts of tourism. However, few studies have been published on community acceptance of tourism impacts [6,9,17,28]. Although tourism has been noted to influence residents’ attitudes and perception, there has been relatively little research on measurements of the perceived tourism impacts on the acceptance of indigenous hosting residents. The Discrete Choice Model DCMThe DCM describes a decision makers’ choice among alternatives and provides information about the complex aspects of a decision makers’ choice behavior. The elicited choice allows researcher to quantitatively examine the effect of each testing aspect through the developed choice experiment. This model has been used to estimate choice behavior in a wide range of research field, tourism development [29,30], transportation planning [31,32], and landscape management [19,33,34,35].The theoretical basis of DCM is characteristics demand theory [36] and random utility maximization theory [37]. Lancaster’s demand theory states that consumers derive utility not from the actual alternatives but from the characteristics or attributes of the alternatives accessible in an applicable choice set. Random utility maximization theory presumes that every individual makes a decision under rationality and maximizes the utility relative to their choice. Discrete choice models statistically model decision makers’ choices among a finite set of alternatives. The collection of alternatives is called a choice set. Alternatives must satisfy the following criteria exhaustive, mutually exclusive, and finite number of alternatives. Each alternative generates certain levels of utility to a decision maker, who is assumed to exhibit utility maximizing estimation of discrete choice models requires choice data. The source can either be the revealed preference data or stated preference data. Revealed preference data or transaction data are data matrices with the actual choices made by decision makers in real settings, such as scanned data in a supermarket or the reservation records in a restaurant. Stated preference data are the real choices made by decision makers in a hypothetical or simulated environment with choice alternatives systematically constructed by the researchers. Although the revealed preference data disclose decision makers’ actual behavior, they often suffer from insufficient information about key attributes for estimating the model. Therefore, we used stated preference data as our data source, developed an experimental design to present choice alternatives with key attributes, and measured decision levels in a controlled environment, which enabled the modeling of respondents’ decisions with greater flexibility and well-intentioned properties. Although tourism development can have both positive and negative impacts on cultural identity, the economy, and the environment in rural indigenous communities, we do not know how and to what extent people balance these impacts. Thus, research concerning how residents perceive the inseparable positive and negative tourism impacts in indigenous sites is lacking. As such, we designed an empirical study using choice modeling to provide insight into this issue. Based on the perception of indigenous communities, the purpose of this study was to investigate the aspects that influence the support for tourism development. We attempted to supplement the findings of these previous studies. This study is comparable to the earlier studies in that the focus is on tourism impacts, but differs from previous studies in the way in which the hosting indigenous communities’ perception of tourism impacts is in practice tourism has both desired and undesired impacts on the community, we wanted to contribute to the understanding of how different impacts affect indigenous residents’ support of tourism development. The study results may assist planners to recognize local perceptions when evaluating the various impacts of planning options. The objectives of this study were to examine which impacts influence local residents’ perception of tourism development and to what extent the impacts influence the indigenous residents’ perception. We used discrete choice modeling to establish experimental choice sets to elicit local residents’ choices among alternatives that combine the impacts derived from the literature and match the site conditions, including the impacts of local and regional economic benefits, pollution affecting quality of lives, tourist conflicts, natural environment damage, cultural architecture and landscape promotion, and cultural self-identity. 2. Methods The purpose of this study was to provide empirical indications as to which tourism impacts are important to the local community, and to what extent the effective impacts influence the local indigenous residents’ attitudes. We designed a discrete choice experiment to collect data, to provide quantitative estimates of the influence of tourism impacts. Study SiteThe study site is located at Laiyi Township, Pingtung County, Taiwan Figure 1. Laiyi Township is a geographically mountainous and culturally indigenous area with an area of nearly km2. Its indigenous population is of the total population of 7428 [38]. This area is the native territory of the Paiwan Tribe and many Paiwan traditional customs and religious rituals are still performed in this area. Along with the scenic forests, streams, waterfalls, and native totems, Laiyi attracts visitors due to its natural and cultural resources supporting tourism and outdoor recreation activities. The Laiyi area is geographically mountainous with interspersed settlements patterned in the area, but is conveniently located to the immediate tourism markets the well-populated Pingtung and Kaohsiung cities are approximately 50 km and 100 km away. Currently, the site tourism development has been under discussions between the local communities and several administrations in different levels, including the township, county, and federal levels, to evaluate the suitable development strategies and practical aids in site planning for the practices in the Laiyi area. The Discrete Choice ModelWe used the Discrete Choice Model DCM method in this study. The following explains the DCM estimation model in this study. In this study, a decision maker n faces competing J alternatives. The decision maker obtains a certain level of utility vnj from alternative j, where j = 1 , … , J . The decision maker chooses the alternative that provides the greatest utility among the alternatives. The model of choice behavior for the decision maker is therefore defined as alternative i is chosen by the decision maker only if v n i > v n j ∀ j ≠ i .However, a certain level of utility v n i is not observable to us. The observable utility to the researchers is denoted as U n j = v n j + ε n j , n = 1 , … , N and j = 1 , … , 1 where n is an index for the individual decision maker, j is an index for the alternatives in a choice set, v n j is the non-stochastic utility component, and ε n j is the error term capturing the stochastic components. The non-stochastic utility component v n j is assumed to be a linear function in the parameters denoted as where x n j is a vector of attributes of alternative j and β is the coefficient for the utility function. The observable utility U n i can be expressed as U n j = x n j ′ β + ε n j 3 Given that the decision maker chooses the alternative that generates the maximum utility and y n j is the response vector for the n th decision maker, the response from the n th decision maker can be denoted as y n j = { 1 , i f U n j ≥ max U n 0 , otherwise 4 where y n j is 1 if U n j takes the maximum value among the j th component of U n = U n 1 , … , U n J , and y n j is 0 the probability for the decision maker n choosing alternative j is denoted as follow [37] P y n j = 1 = Pr U n j > U n k for all k ≠ j = Pr v n j + ε n j > v n k + ε n k for all k ≠ j = Pr ε n k − ε n j or Table 3. The mixed logit regression results. Table 3. The mixed logit regression results. ImpactEstimateSEz-ValuePr >z1Pollution affecting quality of **2Conflicts with tourists– environment disturbance– *4Cultural architecture and landscape ***5Cultural self-identity ***6Employment **7Tourists local ** Table 4. The odds ratio OR of impacts of tourism. Table 4. The odds ratio OR of impacts of tourism. ImpactORPercent1Pollution affecting quality of with environment architecture and landscape self-identity local © 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY license
Giáo dụcHọc tiếng Anh Thứ hai, 11/5/2015, 1337 GMT+7 Trả lời các câu hỏi trong bài đọc chuẩn IELTS về "Tribal tourism". Du khách nước ngoài giao lưu với bộ tộc Bonda tại Ấn Độ. Ảnh The Hindu Holidays with a difference Tribal tourism is becoming more popular. But at what cost to the locals? Tribal tourism is a relatively new type of tourism. It involves travellers going to remote destinations, staying with local people and learning about their culture and way of life. They stay in local accommodation, share facilities with local people, and join in with meals and celebrations. At the moment, less the one percent of holidays are tribal tourism holidays, but this is set to change. Tribal tourism is often compared with foreign exchange visits. However, a foreign exchange involves staying with people who often share the same values. Tribal tourism takes visitors to places where the lifestyle is very different from that in their home location. Those who have been on a tribal holiday explain that experiencing this lifestyle is the main attraction. They say that it offers them the chance to live in a way they never have before. Not everyone is convinced that tribal tourism is a good thing, and opinions are divided. The argument is about whether or not it helps the local population, or whether it exploits them. The main problem is that, because tribal tourism is relatively new, the long-term effects on local populations have not been studied in much detail. Where studies have been carried out, the effects have been found to be negative. Travel writer Ian Coleman recalls a recent trip to Guatemala, where he saw an example of this. "There is a village with a statue of a man called Maximon, who has a special spiritual meaning for the local tribe" he explains. "The statue kept indoors, and once a year the locals bring him out and carry him around the village. However, visitors now pay money for them to bring the statue out and carry it around, while they take photographs. As a result, Maximon has lost his original meaning, and is now just another tourist attraction." So, is it possible to experience an exotic culture without harming it in some way? "With a bit of thought, we can maximize the positive impacts and minimize the negative," says travel company director Hilary Waterhouse. "Remember that you are there not only to experience a difference culture, but to help it in some way. Tourists bring money to the community, which the community can invest in local projects. However, this does not mean you can act the way you might do back home. The most important thing is to show respect, learn about, and be aware of, local customs and traditions. Always remember you're a guest". Dawn baker, manager of travel company Footprints, runs tours to tribal areas in Peru. 'Good companies specializing in tribal tours are very careful about who they allow on their tours', she says. 'They won't take anyone they feel is unsuitable'. Baker offers reading recommendations so that visitors. Dawn baker, manager of travel company Footprints, runs tours to tribal areas in Peru. 'Good companies specializing in tribal tours are very careful about who they allow on their tours', she says. 'They won’t take anyone they feel is unsuitable’. Baker offers reading recommendations so that visitors can read about the country and its cultures. 'The rewards of a trip to this country are priceless, and the more you know in advance, the more priceless they are' Tribal tourism travelers are often surprised at how basic their facilities are when they get there. 'It's not for everyone, but for me it was all part of the experience', says Jamie White, who has recently returned from a trip to Borneo. 'We stayed in the same huts that everyone was living in, with no running water and no electricity. It was basic, but it was an ethical way to travel. Being comfortable means you use more local resources and so have more of an environment impact.' AMA
Read the following passage and mark the letter A, B, C or D on your answer sheet to indicate the correct answer to each of the questions from 30 to 34. Tribal tourism is a relatively new type of tourism. It involves travelers going to remote destinations, staying with local people and learning about their culture and way of life. They stay in local accommodation, share facilities with local people, and join in with meals and celebrations. At the moment, less than one percent of holidays are tribal tourism holidays, but this is set to change. Tribal tourism is often compared with foreign exchange visits. However, a foreign exchange involves staying with people who often share the same values. Tribal tourism takes visitors to places where the lifestyle is very different from that in their home location. Those who have been on tribal holiday explain that experiencing this lifestyle is the main attraction. They say that it offers them the chance to live in a way they never have before. Not everyone is convinced that tribal tourism is a good thing, and opinions are divided. The argument is about whether or not it helps the local population, or whether it exploits them. The main problem is that, because tribal tourism is relatively new, the long-term influences on local populations have not been studied in much detail. Where studies have been carried out, the effects have been found to be negative. So, is it possible to experience an exotic culture without harming it in some way? “With a bit of thought, we can maximise the positive influences and minimise the negative”, says travel company director Hilary Waterhouse. “The most important thing for a tribal tourist is to show respect for, learn about, and be aware of, local customs and traditions. Always remember you're a guest.” Adopted from “Complete IELTS” by Rawdon Wyatt According to paragraph 2, what is the main attraction of tribal tourism?
Tourism and prosperity are generally seen to go hand in hand. The prosperous tourist has surplus funds for food, clothing, lodging, travel and material goods. Tourism is also thought to bring prosperity to host communities - stimulating the local economy in providing employment, improving facilities and services for natives as these are provided for the visitor, and generally enhancing local welfare. Tourism is thought to benefit underdeveloped regions - whether in the Third World or in peripheral pockets within developed nations. Jobs created by tourism can often be filled by relatively unskilled workers who provide personal services for the visitors. Development of tourism prevents development of more hard industry. The very lack of an infrastructure suitable for industrialism that permits the persistence of an ambience perceived as 'quaint,' 'colorful,' 'primitive,' 'exotic,' and 'relaxed' - in short, exactly the type of setting where one can go 'to get away from it all.' The success of touristic ventures, however, creates major problems. For one thing, most rural areas are incapable of carrying high density populations without undergoing dramatic alteration. Yet tourism development encourages many outsiders to move into these areas to manage the industry. Small, indigenous populations are easily swamped when several busloads of tourists arrive or when a cruise vessel pulls into the harbor. PHONY FOLK The pre-tourism lifestyle of local residents is usually modest. When visitors descend, however, they require numerous amenities to recreate aspects of their homelife. This leads to rising expectations and new lifestyles among the locals. Ironically, it may also lead to a decline in tourism as visitors find that the locale no longer offers unique attractions. In order to maintain or increase the flow of tourist monies, a contrived and artificial 'folk culture' is frequently staged. It may even be invented as locals respond to the expectations of visitors. Townspeople will invent a 'traditional blessing of the fleet' to attract visitors; and 'old town' will be newly built complete with hired locals dressed in the costumes of some archaic and often mythical 'olden times'; new 'folk crafts' will be designed and taught to the natives by outsiders. The American Southwest Indians, for example, discovered that travelers frequently bought their more crudely made pottery because those "looked more handmade and authentic' than the more perfectly fashioned items. They began to manufacture such pots deliberately; few kept the old standards. In North America, Indian communities are among the most popular tourist attractions. Every year, hundreds of thousands of tourists visit Indian locales to watch tribal dances, participate in pow-wows, buy 'genuine' Indian pots, arrowheads, blankets, and beaded belts or hand-fashioned jewelry. They have their photographs taken near totem poles, wooden Indians, or tepees built and functioning only for this purpose. Despite the availability of quality goods, the most popular items are still cheap, factory-made artifacts and toy replicas, garishly and conspicuously labeled with cues such as 'Souvenir of Wank-a-tanka Indian Village' Indian dolls made of plastic and still bearing easily removable labels that say 'Made in Taiwan'. ECONOMIC IMPACT What is the impact of tourism on Indian communities and individuals? It would be in error to generalize since both individuals and communities differ sharply in the degree to which they are accessible to outsiders, their economic vulnerability, and the need thus the desire to encourage tourism. The Kaibab Paiutes of northern Arizona have established an on-reservation tourism facility and have maintained control over its development. A more depressing, bleak, and typical kind of tourism affects the Eastern Cherokee of North Carolina. Here the major share of tourism profits go to non-Indians who own or manage the income-producing facilities. During the six winter months, even the small income tourists do bring to the Cherokee disappears… This cyclical economy forces many people to go on welfare to survive me winter...and has an unfortunate effect on the emotional stability of many Cherokees. Six months of frantic activity with exposure to American standards of affluence followed by six months of isolation and dependency do not constitute a wholesome life. Most Cherokees whose jobs depend on tourists work in low-paid capacities as cooks, maids, or shop assistants. About 25 or 30 males are self-employed in the colorful business of "chiefing." These men dress in pan-Indian garb and post themselves in front of the tourist shops as an attraction. They specialize in having their pictures taken and businessmen are happy to have the "chiefs" there, for they attract customers...Tourists seem willing to accept the vulgar Indian stereotype the "chiefs" present for it fits in with their own preconceived ideas of what an Indian is. For many of the 'chiefs,' 'princesses' and troupes of dancers who perform in such ad hoc locales as motel parking lots, tips are a major source of cash income other than welfare monies. GROWTH OF TOURISM Another important factor in determining the extent of tourism's impact is the suddenness with which it is introduced and grows. A slow increment of visitors over the decades gives tribes a chance to acquire gradually a relatively sophisticated understanding of tourism's problems and benefits - and how to manage both on a community basis. This stands in sharp contrast to the drama now unfolding in the northern part of the United States and Canada where many native groups are currently being introduced to tourism. The number of visitors, alterations in the environment, and resulting crises multiply almost monthly. In the Northwest Territory, in the McKenzie District around the Great Slave Lake, the number of tourists increased from under 4,000 in 1963 to over 20,000 in 1970. Yet, as in most of Canada's sub-Arctic, the natives have been forced to deal with this explosion of people with relatively little assistance from either the provincial or national governments. For many of the Canadian Inuit of the Arctic there was little or no information with which to evaluate the impact of the development of tourism before it was upon them. They were not consulted and had no voice in the process; as is so often the case, the industry 'just grew' as a result of outside entrepreneurial activity. The result is that their lives and their livelihoods have been seriously disrupted by outsiders and the new economy these are creating. Yet the impact of tourism, even under the most regulated conditions, extends far beyond the local community and its residents. Worse, many of the regional consequences are not immediately visible - and, by the time they are, the indigenous population has become so dependent on tourism they cannot or will not work to reduce its presence. Since many of the underdeveloped areas are environmentally suitable for low density populations only, the influx of visitors can play havoc with the resources of the area. Thus, in addition to the direct impact of outsiders on the inhabitants, there is the shock that comes when a damaged and degraded habitat becomes incapable of providing a living independent of the income brought by tourists. ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES In the Southwest, giant hotels use more water in one month than a whole town and its hinterland formerly used in a year. Swimming pools are filled, emptied, cleaned, and filled again, consuming thousands of gallons of water each time; guests bathe - sometimes several times daily; linens and serving ware are washed; and spacious green lawns or gardens are continually watered to create a landscape never intended by nature. The result is that water for agricultural production is disappearing or becoming so costly that small farmers and ranchers cannot afford to sink deeper wells; they must give up their livelihood or struggle against increasing costs and declining production. In the same region, hardly a weekend passes without a gathering of motorcyclists. They gather to hold rallies in what they perceive as 'empty space'. The damage that can be inflicted by several hundred cyclists on one of the most fragile econiches known to man is incalculable. Tourists who visit the mountains inflict similar havoc. The most dangerous time for dry forests coincides with the height of the summer camping season. Thousands of acres of woods are burned annually in the devastating forest fires often caused by careless tourists who leave camp sites with hearths smouldering or, driving through, simply toss lighted cigarettes or knock pipe ashes from car windows. Tourism is also behind a more subtle conflict in the region. Since the Spanish conquest in the 17th century, there has been a traditional hostility between Indians and Hispanics. The local situation is growing increasingly tense as Indians watch Spanish landowners 'get rich selling what was once Indian land to Anglo tourists' - and Spanish envy 'the protected reservations of the Indians which remain immune from the same economic pressures to sell.' Each sees the other benefiting at his expense and in ways denied him, Many communities, when given a choice between industrialism or tourism, will opt for the latter on the grounds that it is less destructive of the habitat and the local lifestyle. Yet often industrial development is regulated far more stringently than tourism. Often, tourism is promulgated by government officials who are more concerned with improving the local economy and attracting foreign currency than with protecting indigenous peoples. The elegant and spectacular tourist development at Cancun, Yucatan has been strongly supported by state and federal officials and was specifically designed to serve not only as a recreational attraction but as a convention center. Indigenous families of peasant farmers and fishermen have been displaced or employed in the service sector. Yachts now fill the numerous marinas, once reserved for local fishermen. In 1970 the population of the area was 426; by 1978 it was nearly 30,000. SOCIAL EFFECTS Tourism creates such special problems as psychological stress on women who fill a majority of the jobs in tourism; the teenagers who watch, alternately repelled and lured by the affluence and 'swinging lifestyle; of visitors; the elderly who are bewildered and dismayed as they see their world altered almost overnight. Vaughan has argued that local residents benefit from lower retail prices as larger volumes allow economies of scale. My own research, however, suggests that the price of such basic items as food, clothing, and gas increases 10-20% during the high season. Simple tasks such as shopping, getting shoes repaired, or buying stamps, lead to lengthy delays and frustration. As residents rely more on tourist monies, they are more susceptible to irritants which tourism imposes. Hostility toward visitors is directly related to the ratio of tourists to locals. Increasingly, studies show that tourism causes crime, burglaries and rape, in particular, to increase. In some cases expenditures to service the visitors increased staffing of public areas such as parks; additional medical, police and fire personnel cost more than the tourists' economic input. The problems become even more acute when the tourist economy is controlled by outside entrepreneurs and a major part of the economic benefits are syphoned from the region. Underdeveloped areas often provide consumer goods and personnel services for tourism while the urban, more developed regions control planning and management and consequently reap the bulk of the economic benefits. Rather than having government take a stronger role in planning, managing and overseeing such development, the local population should be involved. In this way tourism can serve the basic needs of the local people; and outside interests cannot use the human and natural resources for their own profit, leaving the local region poorer than before. Tourism need not have the detrimental effects that so often accompany it. North American Indian communities' successes and failures with tourism suggest that, given time to prepare adequately and to control as well as to monitor at the local level, tourism can be beneficial. Article copyright Cultural Survival, Inc.
tribal tourism is a relatively new type of tourism
